Other References
Apocrypha
The 66-book Protestant Bible in historical and theological context
Explore the origins, reception and theological significance of the Apocrypha and deuterocanonical writings across Jewish and Christian traditions.
A page from the Gutenberg Bible, c. 1455. Follow the study from Scripture through centuries of Christian reflection.
Explore this study
Expand the comparisons to explore the details. References link directly to the relevant texts and resources.
Overview
This survey compares the books’ origins, canonical reception and use in Christian doctrine and worship.
Origins and Dates
Origins and Dates: The Old Testament Apocrypha (or deuterocanonical books in Catholic usage) comprise Jewish writings mostly from the late Second Temple period (3rd–1st century BC). For example, Tobit is dated to the 3rd or early 2nd century BC, Sirach to circa 196– 175 BC, 1–2 Maccabees to the 2nd century BC, and the Wisdom of Solomon to the 1st century BC. Many were originally composed in Hebrew or Aramaic (as fragments at Qumran attest) and preserved in Greek translation. The books address themes like wisdom, martyrdom, and Israel’s history, bridging between the Hebrew OT and the New Testament. Tobit: introduction · Sirach: introduction · 1 Maccabees: introduction · 2 Maccabees · Wisdom: introduction
Canon in different traditions
Canon in different traditions: Judaism’s twenty-four-book Tanakh corresponds broadly to the contents counted as thirty-nine books in Protestant Old Testaments. The Catholic Old Testament has forty-six books, including seven commonly called deuterocanonical books and the Greek additions to Esther and Daniel. Orthodox collections vary by church and edition; books such as 1 Esdras, 3 Maccabees and Psalm 151 occur in some, while 4 Maccabees may appear in an appendix. There is no single universal Orthodox total. Trent’s canon list · Articles of Religion, Article VI
- Old Testament count
- 24 (Hebrew canon)
- Treatment of these books
- None (Apocrypha excluded)
- Old Testament count
- 39 (Hebrew texts)
- Treatment of these books
- Not in canon (often included in 17th–19th c. Bibles for reading only)
- Old Testament count
- 46 (includes 7 deuterocanon)
- Treatment of these books
- + Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, additions to Esther/ Daniel, 1–2 Maccabees Trent’s canon list · Compare the canon lists
- Old Testament count
- Varies by church, edition and counting convention
- Treatment of these books
- A broader collection is received in many Orthodox traditions; the status of particular books and appendices varies.
Textual/Theological Differences
Textual/Theological Differences: The Apocrypha often elaborate doctrines only hinted at in the 66-book canon or introduce emphases at variance with Protestant norms. For instance, 2 Maccabees explicitly endorses prayer for the dead and belief in resurrection of the righteous , which undergirds Catholic doctrines like Purgatory (see 2 Macc 12:43–46). In contrast, Protestant theology (Heb 9:27) generally holds death passes to judgment without intermediate purifying state. Other examples of tension include emphasis on almsgiving and works as merit (Tobit 12:9; Sirach 3:30) versus the Protestant focus on justification by faith. Key issues are summarized below: 2 Maccabees
- Typical Protestant interpretation
- Protestant traditions generally reject prayer for the dead as a doctrine established by their canon; interpretation of relevant passages differs.
- Deuterocanonical texts and Catholic interpretation
- Explicitly commended (2 Macc 12:43–46 ) 2 Maccabees
- Typical Protestant interpretation
- Some OT hints (Daniel 12:2), NT doctrine of resurrection
- Deuterocanonical texts and Catholic interpretation
- Clear statements (Wis 3:1–6; 2 Macc 7:9,14)
- Typical Protestant interpretation
- Emphasizes faith (e.g. Rom 3:28)
- Deuterocanonical texts and Catholic interpretation
- Almsgiving “averts death” (Tobit 12:9); charity covers sins (Sir 3:30)
- Typical Protestant interpretation
- Present but restrained
- Deuterocanonical texts and Catholic interpretation
- Frequent angelic actions (Tobit, Dan additions)
- Typical Protestant interpretation
- The Hebrew form of Esther does not explicitly name God; Christian liturgies also draw on many other canonical passages.
- Deuterocanonical texts and Catholic interpretation
- Additions to Esther/Daniel include prayers and hymns (e.g. Song of the Three Young Men used in liturgy)
Canon formation
Canon formation: Recognition of scriptural books developed over time and differed among communities. A single Council of Jamnia did not demonstrably close the Jewish canon. Athanasius’ Festal Letter (367) distinguishes canonical books from books recommended for reading; its Old Testament list includes Baruch with Jeremiah and treats Esther separately, so it is not exactly a modern Protestant list. North African councils received a broader collection, and Trent reaffirmed the Catholic canon in 1546. Reformation churches articulated other boundaries. Athanasius’ Festal Letter · Trent’s canon list
- Second Temple periodComposition of Tobit, Sirach, Maccabean histories, Wisdom and related writings
- Early ChristianityVaried reception of Jewish scriptural collections
- 367Athanasius distinguishes canonical books and recommended reading
- 393–419North African synods receive a broader Old Testament collection
- Late 4th–early 5th centuriesJerome’s translations and reflections on the Hebrew canon
- 16th centuryReformation distinctions between canonical books and Apocrypha
- 1546Trent reaffirms the Catholic canon
- Modern periodDifferent canons remain in use alongside historical and textual study
Inspiration and authority
Inspiration and authority: Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant conclusions about these writings are theological and ecclesial judgments, not a single academic consensus that the books are outside an inspired canon. Augustine and other Fathers used a broader collection, while other ancient lists were narrower. Luther’s German Bible of 1534 placed the Apocrypha in a distinct section. Anglican Article VI permits reading for instruction without using these books to establish doctrine; Westminster I.3 excludes them from the canon and denies them the authority of Scripture. Claims that the New Testament has no relevant quotation or allusion should be qualified: the definition of the collection matters, and Jude 14–15 explicitly quotes 1 Enoch, a different work that is canonical in Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox traditions. Athanasius’ Festal Letter · Articles of Religion, Article VI
Doctrinal & Liturgical Impact
Doctrinal & Liturgical Impact: Inclusion of the Apocrypha affects doctrine and worship. For Catholics, books like 2 Maccabees undergird the practice of praying for the dead; Wisdom and Sirach inform teaching on wisdom and ethics. The liturgy incorporates them: e.g. Wisdom 3:1–9 appears in the Requiem Mass; the Song of the Three Holy Children (Daniel Additions) is sung at Easter Vigil; Judith and Tobit are read in some feastday lectionaries. Anglican tradition historically assigned Apocryphal lessons in Morning Prayer “for example of life”. By contrast, most Protestant churches exclude Apocryphal readings, focusing on the 66-book canon alone. In practice, denominations that include the Apocrypha (Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, some Lutheran bodies) develop doctrines and prayers informed by them (e.g. patronage of saints like Judith, homilies on Maccabean heroes), whereas other denominations do not. Articles of Religion, Article VI
Further reading
Further reading: Start with the books themselves, Athanasius’ Festal Letter 39, Jerome’s biblical prefaces, Trent’s Fourth Session, Anglican Article VI, Belgic Confession Article 6 and Westminster I.3. F. F. Bruce’s The Canon of Scripture and Michael J. Kruger’s The Question of Canon offer modern historical and theological analysis from different emphases. Read the primary lists before relying on a fixed count. Athanasius’ Festal Letter · Trent’s canon list · Articles of Religion, Article VI
Continue studying: The Trinity · The Authority of Scripture · The Deity of Jesus Christ